Loading figures…
Loading figures…
Monthly volume of retail trade, calendar and seasonally adjusted (index 2021 = 100), and its change on a year before. All figures for Spain
| Measure | Latest | Period | EU rank | vs EU median | Among EU countries |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Volume index | 111.5 index | Jul 2026 | 10th highest of 27 | +4.1 index | EU lowest 94.2 indexEU highest 143.5 index |
| Change on a year before | −0.7% | Jul 2026 | 4th lowest of 27 | −4.3 pp | EU lowest −5.7%EU highest +8.6% |
| Period | index |
|---|---|
| Jul 2026 | 111.5 |
| Jun 2026 | 112.5 |
| May 2026 | 112.1 |
| Apr 2026 | 111.5 |
| Mar 2026 | 113.2 |
| Feb 2026 | 112.0 |
| Jan 2026 | 112.1 |
| Dec 2025 | 112.2 |
| Nov 2025 | 113.3 |
| Oct 2025 | 112.3 |
| Sep 2025 | 112.3 |
| Aug 2025 | 111.9 |
| Jul 2025 | 111.9 |
| Jun 2025 | 111.8 |
| May 2025 | 110.7 |
| Apr 2025 | 110.8 |
| Mar 2025 | 108.9 |
| Feb 2025 | 109.6 |
| Jan 2025 | 108.1 |
| Dec 2024 | 109.3 |
| Nov 2024 | 106.9 |
| Oct 2024 | 108.1 |
| Sep 2024 | 107.9 |
| Aug 2024 | 107.0 |
| Jul 2024 | 106.6 |
| Jun 2024 | 105.3 |
| May 2024 | 105.5 |
| Apr 2024 | 106.1 |
| Mar 2024 | 105.0 |
| Feb 2024 | 105.5 |
| Jan 2024 | 105.4 |
| Dec 2023 | 104.9 |
| Nov 2023 | 106.2 |
| Oct 2023 | 104.4 |
| Sep 2023 | 103.8 |
| Aug 2023 | 104.4 |
| Jul 2023 | 105.3 |
| Jun 2023 | 105.1 |
| May 2023 | 105.0 |
| Apr 2023 | 105.5 |
| Mar 2023 | 104.1 |
| Feb 2023 | 103.4 |
| Jan 2023 | 104.5 |
| Dec 2022 | 102.3 |
| Nov 2022 | 102.5 |
| Oct 2022 | 102.4 |
| Sep 2022 | 102.8 |
| Aug 2022 | 103.0 |
| Jul 2022 | 101.7 |
| Jun 2022 | 102.2 |
| May 2022 | 103.5 |
| Apr 2022 | 102.2 |
| Mar 2022 | 100.0 |
| Feb 2022 | 102.8 |
| Jan 2022 | 101.1 |
| Dec 2021 | 101.2 |
| Nov 2021 | 105.2 |
| Oct 2021 | 101.6 |
| Sep 2021 | 101.3 |
| Aug 2021 | 100.9 |
| Jul 2021 | 100.3 |
| Jun 2021 | 100.0 |
| May 2021 | 99.2 |
| Apr 2021 | 97.8 |
| Mar 2021 | 100.6 |
| Feb 2021 | 97.6 |
| Jan 2021 | 94.6 |
| Dec 2020 | 101.3 |
| Nov 2020 | 99.7 |
| Oct 2020 | 100.1 |
| Sep 2020 | 99.4 |
| Aug 2020 | 99.8 |
| Jul 2020 | 99.5 |
| Jun 2020 | 98.0 |
| May 2020 | 83.7 |
| Apr 2020 | 72.2 |
| Mar 2020 | 88.1 |
| Feb 2020 | 104.2 |
| Jan 2020 | 103.1 |
| Dec 2019 | 103.2 |
| Nov 2019 | 103.3 |
| Oct 2019 | 103.0 |
| Sep 2019 | 103.4 |
| Aug 2019 | 102.7 |
| Jul 2019 | 103.0 |
| Jun 2019 | 102.7 |
| May 2019 | 102.2 |
| Apr 2019 | 101.9 |
| Mar 2019 | 101.4 |
| Feb 2019 | 101.9 |
| Jan 2019 | 102.1 |
| Dec 2018 | 101.0 |
| Nov 2018 | 101.1 |
| Oct 2018 | 100.3 |
| Sep 2018 | 99.6 |
| Aug 2018 | 99.8 |
| Jul 2018 | 100.0 |
| Jun 2018 | 100.2 |
| May 2018 | 99.8 |
| Apr 2018 | 100.7 |
| Mar 2018 | 100.5 |
| Feb 2018 | 100.2 |
| Jan 2018 | 99.8 |
| Dec 2017 | 100.5 |
| Nov 2017 | 100.6 |
| Oct 2017 | 97.6 |
| Sep 2017 | 100.3 |
| Aug 2017 | 100.0 |
| Jul 2017 | 100.2 |
| Jun 2017 | 100.3 |
| May 2017 | 99.7 |
| Apr 2017 | 100.0 |
| Mar 2017 | 98.9 |
| Feb 2017 | 98.2 |
| Jan 2017 | 98.7 |
| Dec 2016 | 98.0 |
| Nov 2016 | 98.5 |
| Oct 2016 | 99.1 |
| Sep 2016 | 99.3 |
| Aug 2016 | 98.9 |
| Jul 2016 | 99.2 |
| Jun 2016 | 98.8 |
| May 2016 | 98.2 |
| Apr 2016 | 98.3 |
| Mar 2016 | 97.7 |
| Feb 2016 | 97.9 |
| Jan 2016 | 97.7 |
| Dec 2015 | 97.2 |
| Nov 2015 | 96.8 |
| Oct 2015 | 96.5 |
| Sep 2015 | 96.1 |
| Aug 2015 | 95.6 |
| Jul 2015 | 94.8 |
| Jun 2015 | 93.5 |
| May 2015 | 94.6 |
| Apr 2015 | 93.7 |
| Mar 2015 | 94.3 |
| Feb 2015 | 93.5 |
| Jan 2015 | 93.6 |
| Dec 2014 | 93.2 |
| Nov 2014 | 92.3 |
| Oct 2014 | 91.4 |
| Sep 2014 | 91.3 |
| Aug 2014 | 91.6 |
| Jul 2014 | 91.1 |
| Jun 2014 | 91.0 |
| May 2014 | 91.1 |
| Apr 2014 | 90.7 |
| Mar 2014 | 90.0 |
| Feb 2014 | 90.4 |
| Jan 2014 | 89.7 |
| Dec 2013 | 90.0 |
| Nov 2013 | 90.3 |
| Oct 2013 | 89.9 |
| Sep 2013 | 90.6 |
| Aug 2013 | 91.3 |
| Jul 2013 | 91.1 |
| Jun 2013 | 90.8 |
| May 2013 | 90.6 |
| Apr 2013 | 90.0 |
| Mar 2013 | 89.5 |
| Feb 2013 | 90.4 |
| Jan 2013 | 89.9 |
| Dec 2012 | 89.7 |
| Nov 2012 | 89.3 |
| Oct 2012 | 89.6 |
| Sep 2012 | 88.6 |
| Aug 2012 | 98.3 |
| Jul 2012 | 96.5 |
| Jun 2012 | 97.5 |
| May 2012 | 97.7 |
| Apr 2012 | 96.3 |
| Mar 2012 | 99.8 |
| Feb 2012 | 99.4 |
| Jan 2012 | 101.7 |
| Dec 2011 | 100.1 |
| Nov 2011 | 100.2 |
| Oct 2011 | 101.9 |
| Sep 2011 | 102.5 |
| Aug 2011 | 101.9 |
| Jul 2011 | 103.8 |
| Jun 2011 | 103.7 |
| May 2011 | 104.1 |
| Apr 2011 | 106.0 |
| Mar 2011 | 104.3 |
| Feb 2011 | 105.9 |
| Jan 2011 | 105.7 |
| Dec 2010 | 106.8 |
| Nov 2010 | 107.7 |
| Oct 2010 | 108.8 |
| Sep 2010 | 108.5 |
| Aug 2010 | 109.0 |
| Jul 2010 | 108.9 |
| Jun 2010 | 113.2 |
| May 2010 | 111.7 |
| Apr 2010 | 110.2 |
| Mar 2010 | 114.1 |
| Feb 2010 | 112.2 |
| Jan 2010 | 112.0 |
| Dec 2009 | 113.3 |
| Nov 2009 | 111.7 |
| Oct 2009 | 111.8 |
| Sep 2009 | 112.7 |
| Aug 2009 | 112.3 |
| Jul 2009 | 112.8 |
| Jun 2009 | 112.4 |
| May 2009 | 112.5 |
| Apr 2009 | 113.1 |
| Mar 2009 | 111.6 |
| Feb 2009 | 112.7 |
| Jan 2009 | 115.2 |
| Dec 2008 | 114.2 |
| Nov 2008 | 116.6 |
| Oct 2008 | 117.1 |
| Sep 2008 | 117.4 |
| Aug 2008 | 117.8 |
| Jul 2008 | 118.8 |
| Jun 2008 | 117.8 |
| May 2008 | 120.2 |
| Apr 2008 | 122.0 |
| Mar 2008 | 120.9 |
| Feb 2008 | 122.7 |
| Jan 2008 | 123.4 |
| Dec 2007 | 124.4 |
| Nov 2007 | 126.7 |
| Oct 2007 | 126.2 |
| Sep 2007 | 126.9 |
| Aug 2007 | 127.4 |
| Jul 2007 | 127.2 |
| Jun 2007 | 127.1 |
| May 2007 | 127.0 |
| Apr 2007 | 125.4 |
| Mar 2007 | 128.6 |
| Feb 2007 | 126.1 |
| Jan 2007 | 124.9 |
| Dec 2006 | 125.9 |
| Nov 2006 | 125.6 |
| Oct 2006 | 124.5 |
| Sep 2006 | 124.2 |
| Aug 2006 | 123.0 |
| Jul 2006 | 122.9 |
| Jun 2006 | 122.7 |
| May 2006 | 122.6 |
| Apr 2006 | 122.2 |
| Mar 2006 | 122.0 |
| Feb 2006 | 122.0 |
| Jan 2006 | 121.7 |
| Dec 2005 | 121.0 |
| Nov 2005 | 121.2 |
| Oct 2005 | 120.8 |
| Sep 2005 | 121.0 |
| Aug 2005 | 120.0 |
| Jul 2005 | 120.1 |
| Jun 2005 | 121.4 |
| May 2005 | 121.0 |
| Apr 2005 | 121.7 |
| Mar 2005 | 121.0 |
| Feb 2005 | 121.1 |
| Jan 2005 | 121.1 |
| Dec 2004 | 120.4 |
| Nov 2004 | 121.3 |
| Oct 2004 | 120.0 |
| Sep 2004 | 119.3 |
| Aug 2004 | 118.7 |
| Jul 2004 | 120.1 |
| Jun 2004 | 119.6 |
| May 2004 | 119.3 |
| Apr 2004 | 119.8 |
| Mar 2004 | 118.5 |
| Feb 2004 | 118.9 |
| Jan 2004 | 118.6 |
| Dec 2003 | 117.4 |
| Nov 2003 | 117.6 |
| Oct 2003 | 119.0 |
| Sep 2003 | 117.6 |
| Aug 2003 | 117.6 |
| Jul 2003 | 117.4 |
| Jun 2003 | 117.2 |
| May 2003 | 116.8 |
| Apr 2003 | 115.9 |
| Mar 2003 | 114.7 |
| Feb 2003 | 115.3 |
| Jan 2003 | 114.3 |
| Dec 2002 | 112.8 |
| Nov 2002 | 114.2 |
| Oct 2002 | 115.0 |
| Sep 2002 | 116.2 |
| Aug 2002 | 115.0 |
| Jul 2002 | 113.7 |
| Jun 2002 | 112.9 |
| May 2002 | 113.1 |
| Apr 2002 | 112.4 |
| Mar 2002 | 113.3 |
| Feb 2002 | 112.7 |
| Jan 2002 | 111.3 |
| Dec 2001 | 112.8 |
| Nov 2001 | 110.6 |
| Oct 2001 | 109.6 |
| Sep 2001 | 109.0 |
| Aug 2001 | 110.8 |
| Jul 2001 | 109.1 |
| Jun 2001 | 109.5 |
| May 2001 | 108.3 |
| Apr 2001 | 107.8 |
| Mar 2001 | 108.1 |
| Feb 2001 | 107.9 |
| Jan 2001 | 108.6 |
| Dec 2000 | 107.6 |
| Nov 2000 | 107.6 |
| Oct 2000 | 106.8 |
| Sep 2000 | 106.2 |
| Aug 2000 | 105.1 |
| Jul 2000 | 106.0 |
| Jun 2000 | 105.5 |
| May 2000 | 105.5 |
| Apr 2000 | 105.4 |
| Mar 2000 | 104.4 |
| Feb 2000 | 103.4 |
| Jan 2000 | 104.1 |
| Period | % y/y |
|---|---|
| Jul 2026 | −0.7 |
| Jun 2026 | +0.8 |
| May 2026 | +1.2 |
| Apr 2026 | +0.3 |
| Mar 2026 | +4.3 |
| Feb 2026 | +2.1 |
| Jan 2026 | +3.6 |
| Dec 2025 | +2.7 |
| Nov 2025 | +6.3 |
| Oct 2025 | +4.0 |
| Sep 2025 | +4.2 |
| Aug 2025 | +4.7 |
| Jul 2025 | +4.6 |
| Jun 2025 | +6.5 |
| May 2025 | +4.9 |
| Apr 2025 | +4.2 |
| Mar 2025 | +3.8 |
| Feb 2025 | +3.8 |
| Jan 2025 | +2.0 |
| Dec 2024 | +4.4 |
| Nov 2024 | +0.8 |
| Oct 2024 | +3.8 |
| Sep 2024 | +4.3 |
| Aug 2024 | +2.5 |
| Jul 2024 | +1.2 |
| Jun 2024 | +0.4 |
| May 2024 | +0.2 |
| Apr 2024 | +0.6 |
| Mar 2024 | +0.5 |
| Feb 2024 | +1.8 |
| Jan 2024 | +0.4 |
| Dec 2023 | +2.6 |
| Nov 2023 | +4.1 |
| Oct 2023 | +2.0 |
| Sep 2023 | +1.1 |
| Aug 2023 | +1.4 |
| Jul 2023 | +3.6 |
| Jun 2023 | +3.1 |
| May 2023 | +1.6 |
| Apr 2023 | +3.9 |
| Mar 2023 | +3.8 |
| Feb 2023 | +0.4 |
| Jan 2023 | +3.1 |
| Dec 2022 | +0.7 |
| Nov 2022 | −2.3 |
| Oct 2022 | +0.5 |
| Sep 2022 | +1.3 |
| Aug 2022 | +2.1 |
| Jul 2022 | +1.2 |
| Jun 2022 | +2.3 |
| May 2022 | +4.8 |
| Apr 2022 | +5.1 |
| Mar 2022 | −0.7 |
| Feb 2022 | +5.5 |
| Jan 2022 | +6.6 |
| Dec 2021 | −0.5 |
| Nov 2021 | +5.8 |
| Oct 2021 | +1.3 |
| Sep 2021 | +2.0 |
| Aug 2021 | +1.2 |
| Jul 2021 | +0.4 |
| Jun 2021 | +2.2 |
| May 2021 | +18.7 |
| Apr 2021 | +35.0 |
| Mar 2021 | +14.5 |
| Feb 2021 | −6.6 |
| Jan 2021 | −8.7 |
| Dec 2020 | −1.8 |
| Nov 2020 | −3.1 |
| Oct 2020 | −2.6 |
| Sep 2020 | −3.7 |
| Aug 2020 | −2.6 |
| Jul 2020 | −3.7 |
| Jun 2020 | −4.5 |
| May 2020 | −17.9 |
| Apr 2020 | −29.6 |
| Mar 2020 | −12.9 |
| Feb 2020 | +2.0 |
| Jan 2020 | +0.4 |
| Dec 2019 | +2.3 |
| Nov 2019 | +2.5 |
| Oct 2019 | +2.9 |
| Sep 2019 | +3.8 |
| Aug 2019 | +3.1 |
| Jul 2019 | +2.9 |
| Jun 2019 | +2.7 |
| May 2019 | +2.7 |
| Apr 2019 | +0.7 |
| Mar 2019 | +1.0 |
| Feb 2019 | +1.8 |
| Jan 2019 | +2.0 |
| Dec 2018 | +0.5 |
| Nov 2018 | +1.0 |
| Oct 2018 | +2.7 |
| Sep 2018 | −0.9 |
| Aug 2018 | −0.2 |
| Jul 2018 | −0.5 |
| Jun 2018 | +0.1 |
| May 2018 | +0.1 |
| Apr 2018 | +0.4 |
| Mar 2018 | +1.9 |
| Feb 2018 | +2.1 |
| Jan 2018 | +0.6 |
| Dec 2017 | +2.7 |
| Nov 2017 | +2.8 |
| Oct 2017 | −1.6 |
| Sep 2017 | +1.0 |
| Aug 2017 | +1.1 |
| Jul 2017 | +1.0 |
| Jun 2017 | +2.1 |
| May 2017 | +1.5 |
| Apr 2017 | +1.6 |
| Mar 2017 | +1.1 |
| Feb 2017 | −0.2 |
| Jan 2017 | +0.5 |
| Dec 2016 | +0.5 |
| Nov 2016 | +2.1 |
| Oct 2016 | +2.8 |
| Sep 2016 | +3.5 |
| Aug 2016 | +3.5 |
| Jul 2016 | +4.8 |
| Jun 2016 | +6.3 |
| May 2016 | +3.8 |
| Apr 2016 | +5.1 |
| Mar 2016 | +3.6 |
| Feb 2016 | +4.4 |
| Jan 2016 | +3.9 |
| Dec 2015 | +4.0 |
| Nov 2015 | +5.4 |
| Oct 2015 | +5.5 |
| Sep 2015 | +5.4 |
| Aug 2015 | +4.4 |
| Jul 2015 | +4.2 |
| Jun 2015 | +2.8 |
| May 2015 | +3.9 |
| Apr 2015 | +3.3 |
| Mar 2015 | +4.7 |
| Feb 2015 | +3.1 |
| Jan 2015 | +4.1 |
| Dec 2014 | +3.4 |
| Nov 2014 | +2.5 |
| Oct 2014 | +1.5 |
| Sep 2014 | +1.0 |
| Aug 2014 | +0.6 |
| Jul 2014 | +0.1 |
| Jun 2014 | +0.1 |
| May 2014 | +0.7 |
| Apr 2014 | +0.6 |
| Mar 2014 | +0.5 |
| Feb 2014 | −0.4 |
| Jan 2014 | −0.6 |
| Dec 2013 | +0.1 |
| Nov 2013 | +1.6 |
| Oct 2013 | 0.0 |
| Sep 2013 | +2.2 |
| Aug 2013 | −6.4 |
| Jul 2013 | −5.3 |
| Jun 2013 | −6.7 |
| May 2013 | −6.8 |
| Apr 2013 | −6.6 |
| Mar 2013 | −10.6 |
| Feb 2013 | −9.0 |
| Jan 2013 | −11.9 |
| Dec 2012 | −10.7 |
| Nov 2012 | −10.8 |
| Oct 2012 | −12.5 |
| Sep 2012 | −13.9 |
| Aug 2012 | −2.7 |
| Jul 2012 | −7.1 |
| Jun 2012 | −6.0 |
| May 2012 | −5.9 |
| Apr 2012 | −9.1 |
| Mar 2012 | −4.5 |
| Feb 2012 | −6.3 |
| Jan 2012 | −3.4 |
| Dec 2011 | −6.5 |
| Nov 2011 | −7.1 |
| Oct 2011 | −6.5 |
| Sep 2011 | −5.6 |
| Aug 2011 | −5.7 |
| Jul 2011 | −4.7 |
| Jun 2011 | −8.5 |
| May 2011 | −6.8 |
| Apr 2011 | −3.6 |
| Mar 2011 | −8.9 |
| Feb 2011 | −5.6 |
| Jan 2011 | −5.5 |
| Dec 2010 | −6.1 |
| Nov 2010 | −3.7 |
| Oct 2010 | −2.6 |
| Sep 2010 | −3.7 |
| Aug 2010 | −2.1 |
| Jul 2010 | −3.5 |
| Jun 2010 | +1.2 |
| May 2010 | −0.9 |
| Apr 2010 | −2.9 |
| Mar 2010 | +2.2 |
| Feb 2010 | −0.7 |
| Jan 2010 | −2.9 |
| Dec 2009 | −1.0 |
| Nov 2009 | −4.6 |
| Oct 2009 | −4.4 |
| Sep 2009 | −3.8 |
| Aug 2009 | −3.9 |
| Jul 2009 | −4.7 |
| Jun 2009 | −4.2 |
| May 2009 | −6.6 |
| Apr 2009 | −7.5 |
| Mar 2009 | −8.0 |
| Feb 2009 | −8.4 |
| Jan 2009 | −6.7 |
| Dec 2008 | −8.8 |
| Nov 2008 | −8.3 |
| Oct 2008 | −7.3 |
| Sep 2008 | −7.4 |
| Aug 2008 | −6.8 |
| Jul 2008 | −6.3 |
| Jun 2008 | −7.5 |
| May 2008 | −5.5 |
| Apr 2008 | −2.6 |
| Mar 2008 | −6.3 |
| Feb 2008 | −2.8 |
| Jan 2008 | −1.2 |
| Dec 2007 | −1.6 |
| Nov 2007 | +0.8 |
| Oct 2007 | +1.4 |
| Sep 2007 | +2.3 |
| Aug 2007 | +4.4 |
| Jul 2007 | +3.9 |
| Jun 2007 | +3.5 |
| May 2007 | +3.4 |
| Apr 2007 | +2.3 |
| Mar 2007 | +5.6 |
| Feb 2007 | +3.4 |
| Jan 2007 | +2.5 |
| Dec 2006 | +3.9 |
| Nov 2006 | +3.7 |
| Oct 2006 | +3.0 |
| Sep 2006 | +2.9 |
| Aug 2006 | +3.0 |
| Jul 2006 | +2.5 |
| Jun 2006 | +0.7 |
| May 2006 | +1.2 |
| Apr 2006 | +0.3 |
| Mar 2006 | +1.2 |
| Feb 2006 | +0.7 |
| Jan 2006 | +0.3 |
| Dec 2005 | +0.3 |
| Nov 2005 | +0.1 |
| Oct 2005 | +0.3 |
| Sep 2005 | +1.6 |
| Aug 2005 | +1.0 |
| Jul 2005 | −0.2 |
| Jun 2005 | +1.4 |
| May 2005 | +1.4 |
| Apr 2005 | +1.6 |
| Mar 2005 | +2.6 |
| Feb 2005 | +2.3 |
| Jan 2005 | +2.2 |
| Dec 2004 | +2.1 |
| Nov 2004 | +3.6 |
| Oct 2004 | +0.6 |
| Sep 2004 | +1.3 |
| Aug 2004 | +0.5 |
| Jul 2004 | +2.3 |
| Jun 2004 | +2.0 |
| May 2004 | +2.1 |
| Apr 2004 | +3.8 |
| Mar 2004 | +3.6 |
| Feb 2004 | +3.4 |
| Jan 2004 | +3.8 |
| Dec 2003 | +3.3 |
| Nov 2003 | +3.2 |
| Oct 2003 | +3.7 |
| Sep 2003 | +1.2 |
| Aug 2003 | +1.9 |
| Jul 2003 | +3.4 |
| Jun 2003 | +3.7 |
| May 2003 | +3.2 |
| Apr 2003 | +3.4 |
| Mar 2003 | +1.0 |
| Feb 2003 | +2.5 |
| Jan 2003 | +2.2 |
| Dec 2002 | −0.8 |
| Nov 2002 | +3.3 |
| Oct 2002 | +5.3 |
| Sep 2002 | +7.1 |
| Aug 2002 | +3.9 |
| Jul 2002 | +4.4 |
| Jun 2002 | +3.1 |
| May 2002 | +4.4 |
| Apr 2002 | +4.3 |
| Mar 2002 | +4.9 |
| Feb 2002 | +4.8 |
| Jan 2002 | +1.9 |
| Dec 2001 | +4.6 |
| Nov 2001 | +2.7 |
| Oct 2001 | +2.6 |
| Sep 2001 | +2.9 |
| Aug 2001 | +5.8 |
| Jul 2001 | +2.8 |
| Jun 2001 | +3.8 |
| May 2001 | +2.6 |
| Apr 2001 | +2.2 |
| Mar 2001 | +3.5 |
| Feb 2001 | +4.8 |
| Jan 2001 | +4.1 |
allfigures, “Volume index, Spain, Jul 2026: 111.5 index”. Source: Eurostat (CC BY 4.0). https://allfigures.xyz/data/retail-sales/spain, retrieved 23 Sep 2026.